UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE CHIAPAS
LIC. EN ENSEÑANZA DEL INGLES
FACULTAD DE LENGUAS CAMPUS TUXTLA
Susana Cal y Mayor Narváez
Alejandra L. Palacios Rodríguez
lunes, 24 de abril de 2017
Reciprocal Pronoun
A reciprocal pronoun is used to indicate that two or
more people are carrying out or have carried out an action of some type, with
both receiving the benefits or consequences of that action simultaneously. Any
time something is done or given in return, reciprocal pronouns are used.
There
are only two reciprocal pronouns.
- Each other
- One another
Use:
There must be two or more people, things or groups
involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular],
he/she/it).
When you want to refer to two people, you will
normally use “each other.”
When referring to more than two people, you will
normally use “one another.”
Example:
Maria and Juan kissed each other at the end of the ceremony.
The students congratulated one another after giving practice speeches.
Reference
In semantics, reference
is generally construed as the relationships between nouns or pronouns and
objects that are named by them. Hence, the word "John"
refers to the person John. The word "it" refers to some previously
specified object.
The object referred to is called the referent of
the word. Sometimes the word-object relation is called "denotation";
the word denotes the object.
The converse relation, the relation from object to
word, is called "exemplification"; the object exemplifies what the
word denotes. In syntactic analysis, if a word refers to a previous word, the
previous word is called the "antecedent".
Reflexive Vs. Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is almost identical to a reflexive pronoun. It is defined as a pronoun that ends in self or selves and places emphasis on
its antecedent by referring back to another noun or pronoun used earlier
in the sentence
You can tell the difference between a reflexive pronoun and an intensive
pronoun easily: Intensive pronouns aren’t essential to a sentence’s basic
meaning. Understanding this basic difference will help to prevent you from
confusing the two.
Both intensive and reflexive pronouns end in the suffix –self or –selves, however reflexive pronouns are always objects that refer to
a sentence’s subject. The following example shows a reflexive pronoun in
action:
Jim made himself coffee.
Without the reflexive pronoun himself,
it would be impossible for the reader to know who Jim made coffee for.
In the next example, himself is
used as an intensive pronoun. The reader would be able to understand the
sentence’s complete meaning without this pronoun, but it serves to add
emphasis:
·
Jim made coffee for
the king himself.
Here, himself refers
to the king rather than to Jim. The reader is meant to be impressed that Jim
made coffee for the king.
Common Intensive Pronouns:
The following list contains the most commonly used examples of intensive
pronouns.
- · Himself
- · Herself
- · Yourself
- · Themselves
- · Ourselves
In English grammar, a reflexive pronoun indicates that the person who is
realizing the action of the verb is also the recipient of the action. While
this might seem strange at first glance, the following examples of reflexive
pronouns and the accompanying list of reflexive pronouns will help you gain
thorough understanding.
Examples of Reflexive Pronouns:
·
In the following
examples of reflexive pronouns, the reflexive pronoun in each sentence is
italicized.
- · I was in a hurry, so I washed the car myself.
- · You’re going to have to drive yourself to school today.
- · He wanted to impress her, so he baked a cake himself.
- · Jennifer does chores herself because she doesn’t trust others to do them right
Regular Verbs
A regular verb is one that conforms to the usual rule for forming its
simple past tense and its past participle. A regular verb is any verb whose conjugation follows the typical
pattern, or one of the typical patterns, of the language to which it belongs.
With the exception of the highly irregular verb be, an English verb can
have up to five forms: its plain form (or bare infinitive), a third person
singular present tense, a past tense (or preterite), a past participle, and the
-ing form that serves as both a present participle and gerund.
The rules for the formation of the inflected parts of regular verbs are
given in detail in the article on English verbs. In summary they are as
follows:
•The third person singular present tense is formed by adding the ending
-s (or -es after certain letters) to the plain form. When the plain form ends
with the letter -y following a consonant, this becomes -ies. The ending is
pronounced /s/ after a voiceless consonant sound (as in hops, halts, packs,
bluffs, laughs), or /z/ after a voiced consonant or vowel sound (as in robs,
lends, begs, sings, thaws, flies, sighs), but /ɪz/ after a sibilant (passes,
pushes, marches).
•The past tense and past participle are identical; they are formed with
the ending -ed, which as in the previous case has three different
pronunciations (/t/, /d/, /ɪd/). Certain spelling rules apply, including the
doubling of consonants before the ending in forms like conned and preferred.
There is some variation in the application of these spelling rules with some
rarer verbs, and particularly with verbs ending -c (panic–panicked,
zinc–zinc(k)ed, arc–arced, etc.), meaning that these forms are not fully
predictable, but such verbs are not normally listed among the irregular ones.
(The verbs lay and pay, however, are commonly listed as irregular, despite
being regular in terms of pronunciation – their past forms have the anomalous
spellings laid and paid.)
•The present participle/gerund is formed by adding -ing, again with the
application of certain spelling rules similar to those that apply with -ed.
Relative Pronoun
A relative pronoun is one, which is used to refer to nouns mentioned
previously, whether they are people, places, things, animals, or ideas.
Relative pronouns can be used to join two sentences.
There are only a few relative pronouns in the English language. The most
common are which, that, whose, whoever, whomever, who, and whom. In some
situations, the words what, when, and where can also function as relative
pronouns.
Examples: The cyclist who won the race trained hard. The pants that I
bought yesterday are already stained.
Rhythm
In linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is one of the
three aspects of prosody, along with stress and intonation.
Languages can be categorized according to whether they are syllable-timed,
mora-timed, or stress-timed.
Speakers of syllable-timed
languages such as Spanish and Cantonese put roughly equal
time on each syllable; in contrast, speakers of stressed-timed languages such
as English and Mandarin Chinese put roughly equal time lags
between stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in
between them being adjusted to accommodate the stress timing.
Root
A root, or a root word, is a word that does not
have a prefix in front of the word or a suffix at the end of the word.
The root
word is the primary lexical unit of a word, and of a word
family (root is then called base word), which carries the most significant
aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller
constituents.
Content words in nearly all languages contain,
and may consist only of root morphemes.
Semiotics
It is the study of meaning-making,
the study of sign processes and meaningful communication. This includes the
study of signs and sign
processes (semiosis), indication,
designation, likeness, analogy, allegory, metonymy, metaphor symbolism, signification, and communication
The semiotic tradition explores the
study of signs and symbols as a significant part of communications. As
different from linguistics, however, semiotics also studies non-linguistic sign systems.
Sense
In linguistics, a word sense is one of the meanings of a word.
For example, a dictionary may have over 50 different senses of
the word play, each of
these having a different meaning based on the context of the word's usage in a sentence,
as follows:
·
We went to see the play Romeo and Juliet at the theater.
·
The coach devised a great play that put the visiting team on the
defensive.
·
The children went out to play in the park.
In each sentence we associate a different meaning of the word
"play" based on hints the rest of the sentence gives us.
People and computers, as
they read words, must use a process called word-sense
disambiguation to find the
correct meaning of a word. This process uses context to narrow the possible senses down to
the probable ones. The context includes such things as the ideas conveyed by
adjacent words and nearby phrases, the known or probable purpose and register of the conversation or document, and
the orientation (time and place) implied or expressed.
Speech Act
A speech act in linguistics and
the philosophy of language is an utterance that has performative
function in language and communication.
According to Kent
Bach, "almost any speech act is really the performance of several acts at
once, distinguished by different aspects of the speaker's intention: there is
the act of saying something, what one does in saying it, such as requesting or
promising, and how one is trying to affect one's audience."
The contemporary use
of the term goes back to J. L. Austin's development of performative
utterances and his theory of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary
acts. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising,
ordering, greeting, warning, inviting and congratulating.
Speech Circuit
Allows
us to transmit information, if the circuit does not work properly we will not
be able to communicate. The speech circuit has the following components:
•
Medium / Channel: The communication process using this code requires a channel
for the transmission of the signals. The Channel would be the physical medium
through which communication is transmitted.
•
Code: It is the set of signs that must be shared by the sender and receiver of
a message so that it is understood.
•
Context: Circumstances in which messages are produced. It is what the message
speaks about.
•
Sender / Encoder: Subject that emits or encodes a message. It is the one who is
in charge of transmitting a message which is an idea or information.
•
Message: The information is everything that the sender expresses.
•
Receiver / Decoder: Subject that receives or decodes the message.
•
Interference: It is the interference that occurs in the communication, which
causes a confusion in the messages, or, that these.
Stranding
Traditional grammatical rules say
that we should not have a preposition at the end of a clause or sentence.
However, we sometimes do separate a preposition from the words which follow it
(its complement). This is called preposition stranding, and it is common
in informal styles:
- She was someone to whom he could talk. (formal)
- She was someone who he could talk to. (informal)
- Which room are they having
breakfast in? (informal)
- In which room are they having
breakfast? (formal)
If we leave out words that are
clear from the context (ellipsis), we can use wh-questions with a wh-word + stranded preposition:
A: The office is moving next year.
B: Really, where to?
A: I’m going to buy some flowers online.
B: Who for?
A: My mother.
Subject Pronoun
A subject pronoun is exactly what it sounds like: a pronoun that takes
the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence. Remember, a sentence’s
subject is the person or thing that performs the action of a verb. When you
take an even closer look, you’ll see that a subject pronoun is used as the
subject of a verb, while an object pronoun is usually used as a grammatical
object.
Subject pronouns can be singular or plural, and they can be masculine,
feminine, or gender neutral. The masculine or feminine subject pronoun is used
when gender is known; when referring to an inanimate object, the gender-neutral
form “it” is used.
Examples: We gave them a head start in the race.
You told Jerry that his score was among the best; that made him feel better.
Superlative Adjectives
Superlative
adjectives express the greatest increase or decrease of the quality; it conveys
the supreme value of the noun in question.
For instance, 'He is the richest man
in this town'. Here, the word 'richest' is the superlative adjective which
shows a comparison individually.
- Mary is the tallest of all the students.
- I am in the smallest class in the school.
- This is the most interesting subject for me.
Synonym
A synonym is a
word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word or phrase
in the same language. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a
synonym is called synonymy.
Examples of synonyms are the words begin, start, commence,
and initiate.
Words can be synonymous when meant in certain senses,
even if they are not synonymous in all of their senses.
Uncountable Nouns
Some nouns are not countable and are called uncountable nouns or mass
nouns.
For example, the word clutter
is a mass noun.
That garage is full of clutter.
This sentence makes grammatical sense.
However, the following example does not.
That garage is full of clutters.
Mass nouns cannot take plural forms.
Substances, liquids, and powders are entities that are often signified
by mass nouns such as wood, sand, water, and flour.
Other examples would be milk, air, furniture, freedom, rice, and
intelligence.
Utterance
In spoken language analysis an utterance is a
smallest unit of speech. It is a continuous piece of speech beginning and
ending with a clear pause. In the case of oral languages, it is generally
but not always bounded by silence.
Utterances do not exist in written language,
only their representations do. They can be represented and delineated in written
language in many ways.
In oral/spoken language utterances have several features including
paralinguistic features which are aspects of speech such as facial
expression, gesture, and posture.
Prosodic features include stress, intonation, and tone of voice, as well
as ellipsis, which are words that the listener inserts in spoken language
to fill gaps. Moreover, other aspects of utterances found in spoken languages
are non-fluency features including: voiced/un-voiced pauses (like
"umm"), tag questions, and false starts when someone begins their
utterances again to correct themselves.
Other features include: fillers ("and stuff"); accent/dialect;
deictic expressions, which are utterances like "over there!" which
need further explanation to be understood; simple conjunctions
("and," "but," etc.); and colloquial lexis which are
everyday informal words.
domingo, 23 de abril de 2017
Verb
A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word,
is a word (part of speech) that in syntax conveys an action (bring, read, walk, run, learn),
an occurrence (happen, become),
or a state of being (be, exist, stand).
In the usual description of English, the basic form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive.
• A verb is one of the main parts of a sentence or question in English.
• The verb signals an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Whether
mental, physical, or mechanical, verbs always express activity.
Vocal apparatus
The human vocal apparatus is like two kinds of musical
instruments at once: a wind instrument and a string instrument. This apparatus
includes a source of wind (the lungs), components that vibrate (the vocal cords
in the larynx), and a series of resonant chambers (the pharynx, the mouth, and
the nasal cavities).
The first component
of this apparatus is the lungs that provide the necessary air and that can thus
be described as the “generator”. When you are speaking, your inhalations
become faster and shorter and you breathe more with your mouth, whereas
otherwise you inhale only with your nose. When you exhale while speaking, you
increase the volume and pressure of your airstream to vibrate the vocal cords
in your larynx.
The larynx consists
of a set of muscles and pieces of cartilage, with varying degrees of mobility,
that can be raised or lowered like a gate to protect your bronchi and lungs
from food and other foreign bodies. When you swallow food, your larynx rises,
while the epiglottis, a flap of cartilage at the entry to the larynx, closes
down over it to block the upper airways and let the food move down your
esophagus safely into your stomach.
When you speak, the
air expelled from your lungs moves up through the trachea to the larynx, where
it passes over the vocal cords. These cords are a matched pair of muscles and
ligaments, pearly white in colour, 20 to 25 millimetres long, and coated with
mucus. They constitute the second component of your vocal apparatus: the “vibrator”.
The vocal cords are
attached horizontally from the thyroid cartilage (the “Adam’s apple” in men) at
the front to the arytenoid cartilages at the rear. By moving these cartilages
as you speak, you alter the length and position of your vocal cords. When you
start to say something, the arytenoid cartilages press the vocal cords against
each other, thus closing the opening between them (known as the glottis).
Under the pressure of
the air being exhaled, the vocal cords separate, then close again immediately,
causing the air pressure beneath the glottis to increase again. By opening and
closing the glottis rapidly during phonation, the vocal cords thus release the
air from the lungs in a vibrating stream. When you speak a sentence, you modify
the vibration frequency of your vocal cords many times to produce the acoustic
vibrations (sounds) that are the raw materials for the words themselves.
For these sounds to
be transformed into words, they must then be shaped by the rest of the vocal
apparatus. The first step in this process occurs in the pharyngeal cavity,
where the respiratory and digestive systems meet. The pharynx and the other
cavities with which it communicates (the nasal cavities, mouth, and larynx) act
as a “resonator” that alters the sounds issuing from your vocal cords,
amplifying some frequencies while attenuating others.
The transformation of the sounds
from the larynx is then completed by the position of the soft palate, tongue,
teeth, lips, and other parts of the mouth, which act as “modulators” for
this sound. While the larynx produces the vibrations without which you would
have no voice, it is these other parts of your vocal apparatus that make your
voice so flexible and versatile. They do so in different ways. Your he soft
palate either blocks the passage to the upper nasal cavities or leaves it open
so that the vibrating airstream can enter them. Your jaws open or close to
change the size of the oral cavity. Your tongue changes shape and position to
alter this cavity further. Your tongue and the lips obstruct the airflow
through the teeth to varying extents. The lips also alter their shape—open,
closed, pursed, stretched, and so on—to shape the sound further.
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